12 Week Eight - Sport and Inclusion
12.1 Introduction
Discussions of disability and diversity in sport focus on inclusiveness and representation.
Historically, individuals with disabilities were often marginalised within sport. However, the development of events like the Paralympics has challenged traditional notions of athleticism and ability, providing athletes with disabilities a platform to compete and excel.
This week we’ll explore the representation and treatment of diverse groups within sport, and consider how this provides insight into broader societal attitudes and values.
Takeaway
Sport should be open to everyone.
Key Questions
By the end of this week’s lecture, you should be able to answer the following questions:
How has inclusion in sport developed over time?
What challenges do para-athletes face?
What about race and ethnicity?
What can be done to address issues of inclusion?
Themes
This week’s lecture is organised around four themes:
- Historical Development
- Challenges and Barriers
- Ethnic and Racial Diversity in Sport
- Strategies for Inclusion and Diversity
Concepts
Within these four themes, we’ll encounter the following concepts:
Theories
We’ll also learn about the following theories:
- Imagined Communities (Anderson)
- Representation Theory (Hull)
12.2 Discussion Questions
In small groups, select one of the following questions and use it as a starting point for a discussion of today’s material. There are some suggestions for things you might talk about.
Question 1
How have the concepts of ‘athleticism’ and ‘ability’ been transformed by the development of events such as the Paralympics, and what societal implications does this transformation have?
For example, consider:
Can you provide specific examples of how Paralympics, or other similar events, have challenged traditional notions of athleticism and ability?
How does the recognition and celebration of athletes with disabilities in events like the Paralympics influence societal perceptions of disability?
How can the evolution of such sporting events inform our understanding of the broader societal changes in attitudes towards disability?
Question 2
In what ways does sport serve as a microcosm of societal prejudices and biases related to race, gender, and sexual orientation, and how can it be used to promote diversity and inclusion?
For example:
Can you discuss some instances where sport has reflected societal prejudices and biases, specifically related to race, gender, or sexual orientation?
How has the treatment and representation of diverse groups within sport changed over time, and what factors have influenced these changes?
What roles could sporting organisations, coaches, and teammates play in promoting diversity and combating discrimination within sport?
12.3 Reading
All reading for the module can be accessed via the module reading list on myplace.
Preparatory reading
You should read the following paper before this week’s lecture:
- Smith, Bundon, A., & Best, M. (2016). Disability sport and activist identities: A qualitative study of narratives of activism among elite athletes with impairment. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 26, 139-148.
Further Reading
You should read the following paper after this week’s lecture:
- Hylton, K. (2021). Black Lives Matter in sport…? Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 40(1), 41-48.
12.4 Lecture Outline
Today’s lecture is structured as follows:
12.5 Historical Development
Origins & evolution
Stoke Mandeville Games
- Dr. Ludwig Guttmann launched Stoke Mandeville Games in 1948 for WWII veterans with spinal injuries, using sport for rehabilitation.
- By 1960, these games transformed into the Paralympics.
Eunice Kennedy Shriver
- Inspired by sister Rosemary’s disability, advocated for rights and inclusion in sport for those with intellectual disabilities.
- In 1968, Shriver began Special Olympics, highlighting potential of these individuals through sport.
Sport as a catalyst
- Stoke Mandeville Games and Special Olympics shifted perceptions of disability.
- Both movements placed a spotlight on sport for societal change and inclusion.
Changing perspectives
Evolving attitudes
- Society’s view of disability has evolved, leading to deeper respect for those with disabilities.
- Seeing disability not as an anomaly but as inspiration has bolstered acceptance of Parasports and Special Olympics.
Evolving attitudes
- Society’s view of disability has evolved, leading to deeper respect for those with disabilities.
- Seeing disability not as an anomaly but as inspiration has bolstered acceptance of Parasports and Special Olympics.
Breaking barriers
- Positioned parasport athletes as role models, advancing social disability model and promoting inclusivity in sport and beyond.
Athletes as role models
Inspiration and influence
- Parasport athletes symbolise strength and resilience, inspiring many, especially those with disabilities.
- Achievements and attitudes significantly reshape societal views, promoting disability inclusion and empowerment.
Achievements
- Notable athletes (Tatyana McFadden, David Smith, Ellie Simmonds) have shown that individuals with disabilities can thrive in sport and beyond.
- Their successes impact broader societal attitudes about disability, emphasising potential in every individual.
Media coverage
Dual role
- Media has vital role in reflecting/molding societal views.
- In portraying events and athletes, media influences perceptions about disability and sport.
Evolution of representation
- Past media often portrayed Parasports and Special Olympics negatively.
- Media now highlights athletes’ skills, countering stereotypes.
Agenda-setting and ‘Framing’
- Agenda-setting theory emphasises media’s power in framing issues and guiding public opinion.
- ‘Media Magnifying Glass’ effect – influences views on Parasports and Special Olympics.
12.6 Challenges & Barriers
Physical barriers
Physical Accessibility
- Ensuring physical accessibility in sport supports all.
- Lack of facilities for wheelchair basketball players or visually impaired athletes underscores existing barriers.
‘Universal Design’
- An inclusive approach emphasising accessibility in sporting environments.
- Features like ramps and auditory aids cater to everyone, including those with mobility or sensory challenges.
Broader benefits
- It aids not just the disabled, but also others like parents with pushchairs.
- Sport participation boosts mental health, and inclusive design promotes belonging and a more inclusive sporting culture.
Psychological barriers
Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy
- Self-esteem and self-efficacy significantly influence involvement and motivation of those with disabilities.
- Low self-efficacy can limit sporting participation, while strong self-efficacy boosts performance.
Albert Bandura
- Highlights vital role of cognition in behavior, especially for disabled athletes.
- Self-efficacy shaped by both internal beliefs and external support, including positive feedback and community encouragement.
External factors
- Coaches and trainers play a key role in bolstering self-efficacy in disabled athletes through positive reinforcement.
- Addressing social barriers is vital to foster self-efficacy and ensure inclusive participation in sports.
Economic barriers
Financial obstacles
- Disabled athletes have immense talent but often lack financial support for equipment and training.
Financial support
- Sponsorship and funding disparities favor non-disabled athletes, undermining disabled sport and fair play.
12.7 Ethnic and Racial Diversity in Sport
Historical context
Reflection of societal values
- Sport mirrors societal biases, notably towards racial minorities.
- Racial minorities in sports face challenges and achieve breakthroughs reflective of society.
Stereotyping and representation
Differential treatment
- Portrayal: Commentators often label black athletes as “gifted” and white ones for “work ethic,” reinforcing racial biases.
- These portrayals skew views of athleticism based on race, affecting public perceptions.
Racial stacking
- Some sports positions, like in the NFL, have racial stereotypes associated with them.
- Such views strengthen societal biases, affecting athletes’ opportunities (labeling theory).
Self-perception and opportunities
- Athletes can internalize societal biases, impacting their self-worth and objectives.
- Intersectionality: Sports stereotyping is multifaceted when considering factors like race, gender, and class.
Intersectionality
Understanding identity
- Kimberlé Crenshaw emphasises the entwined nature of identities like race, class, and gender in sports.
- Layered Identity: Our combined identity layers form overall experiences.
Unique experience
- A black female athlete with a disability faces compounded challenges.
- ‘Matrix of Domination’ by Patricia Hill Collins – intertwined identities can lead to varied experiences of privilege or oppression.
Rethinking ‘diversity’
- Intersectional identities in sport mean multiple identity facets, not just singular dimensions.
- Embracing the complex nature of athlete identities promotes a sporting culture that values all aspects of one’s identity.
12.8 Strategies for Inclusion & Diversity in Sport
Affirmative action
Policy-making
- Jackie Robinson’s 1947 debut showcased transformative power of sport policy, altering global norms.
- Notable figures and policies in sport emphasise societal change and highlight policy’s impact.
Enhancing diversity
- Affirmative action in sport supports marginalised communities and breaks barriers.
- U.S.’s Title IX and the UK’s Equality Act 2010.
Evidence and theory
- Anderson, McCormack, and Lee – inclusive policies boost LGBTQ+ acceptance in sport.
- Structural functionalism – policy’s role in fostering societal diversity.
Education and awareness
Affirmative action
- Provides a foundation for inclusive sport.
- For true inclusivity in sport, both affirmative action and education crucial.
Education
- Education emphasises cultural understanding and appreciation of diversity.
- e.g., “Kick it Out” campaign in UK football highlights the value of programs fighting prejudice and promoting cultural awareness in sport.
Community engagement
Role of community
- Community involvement in sport is key for translating inclusivity policies into action.
- Local sporting initiatives, driven by community clubs, democratize access and foster inclusiveness.
Community sport
- Community sport creates belonging and integrates diverse groups, much like a tree’s rootedness and reach.
- Community-led sport unites beyond just sporting interests, bridging societal gaps.
Future innovations
Inclusive technology
- AR and VR in sport ensure accessibility for all athletes.
- Virtual platforms allow global athletes to compete unrestricted by physical boundaries.
Diversity and inclusion
- Howe and Jones (2006) underscore tech’s role in events like the Paralympics.
- Socio-technical systems highlight the synergy between societal aims and sports tech advancements.
Social Learning